Theater in pre-modern Indonesia existed in a state of "happy hybridity." Wayang kulit, with its stories of Hindu gods and heroes, could be attributed to the Islamic "saint" Sunan Kalijaga, without tension or conflict. With reflexive modernity, new forms of theater emerged in nineteenth and early twentieth-century Indonesia that reframed Islam in dialectical relation to residual beliefs, local customs (adat), and cosmopolitanism. Wayang golek, a new form of rod puppet theater, enacted stories of religious war. Randai, a folkloric theater of West Sumatra, dramatized kaba stories that endorsed matrilineal custom and belief over the temptations of modernity. Playwrights including Sanoesi Pane and Sukarno (when the politician was in exile in Eastern Indonesia) wrote modern plays that discoursed upon Islam in relation to Hindu heritage and modern science. While a designated "Islamic theater" did not emerge until the postcolonial period, theater thus operated as an important forum for Islamic representations.